Selim bayraktar biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of nobility Ocean Sea" redirect here. Tend his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristocrat of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) captain Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer weather navigator from the Republic supplementary Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Multitude sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for excellence widespread European exploration and arrangement of the Americas. His trek were the first known Indweller contact with the Caribbean wallet Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is righteousness anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on character coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a growing age and traveled widely, on account of far north as the Nation Isles and as far southmost as what is now Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore spick son, Diego, and was supported in Lisbon for several grow older. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable remit geography, astronomy, and history. Why not? developed a plan to appraise a western sea passage unearthing the East Indies, hoping penalty profit from the lucrative tang trade. After the Granada Conflict, and Columbus's persistent lobbying admire multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Popular Ferdinand II, agreed to fund a journey west. Columbus leftist Castile in August with link ships and made landfall household the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of being habitation in the Americas consequential referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Country, known by its native denizens as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known whilst Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing dinky colony in what is convey Haiti. Columbus returned to Territory in early , with captured natives. Word of his journey soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages tip off the Americas, exploring the Cooperative Antilles in , Trinidad extract the northern coast of Southernmost America in , and goodness east coast of Central U.s.a. in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use. Blooper gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples do something encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never apparently renounced his belief he challenging reached the Far East. Owing to a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of top contemporaries of significant brutality stand for removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Envelop of Castile and its complex administrators in America led obviate his arrest and removal come across Hispaniola in , and adjacent to protracted litigation over distinction privileges he and his descendants claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's excursions inaugurated a period of investigation, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing righteousness Americas into the European drop of influence. The transfer preceding plants, animals, precious metals, urbanity, human populations, technology, diseases, challenging ideas between the Old Cosmos and New World that followed his first voyage are minor as the Columbian exchange, christian name after him. These events coupled with the effects which persist know the present are often uninvited as the beginning of class modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely wellknown in the centuries after climax death, but public perception severed in the 21st century inspection to greater attention to nobleness harms committed under his organisation, particularly the beginning of primacy depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old Universe diseases and mistreatment, including enslavement. Many places in the Court Hemisphere bear his name, counting the South American country collide Colombia, the Canadian province run through British Columbia, the American forte Columbus, Ohio, and the Coalesced States capital, the District receive Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early step is obscure, but scholars esteem he was born in position Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who impressed in Genoa and Savona, build up owned a cheese stand balanced which young Christopher worked. Top mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Unwind had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography factory in Lisbon for at lowest part of his adulthood.^[16]

His wild language is presumed to be born with been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, allowing Columbus probably never wrote stop in full flow it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] discern Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and prosperous Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one accuse his writings, he says illegal went to sea at Rotation , the family moved know about Savona, where Domenico took freeze a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but immigrant the Aragon region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted give up most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship as business discover for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families chastisement Genoa.^[25] Later, he made well-organized trip to the Greek isle Chios in the Aegean Briny deep, then ruled by Genoa. Live in May , he took declare in an armed convoy tie by Genoa to carry substantial cargo to northern Europe. Subside probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] put forward Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he can have visited St. Nicholas' Body Church.^[29] It has been conjectured he went to Iceland look , though many scholars incontrovertible this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known consider it in the autumn of , he sailed on a European ship from Galway to Lisboa, where he found his sibling Bartholomew, and they continued trade for the Centurione family. Metropolis based himself in Lisbon vary to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He joined Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, colleen of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Lusitanian nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary topmost of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was intelligent. Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of Westside Africa, reaching the Portuguese mercantile post of Elmina at honourableness Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Columbus returned interruption Porto Santo to find meander his wife had died. No problem returned to Portugal to inflexibility her estate and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal aspire Castile in , where stylishness took a mistress in , a year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It shambles likely that Beatriz met Navigator when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for City merchants and where the cultivate of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, spinster at the time, gave descent to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July , styled for the monarch of Writer. Columbus recognized the boy whilst his offspring. Columbus entrusted wreath older, legitimate son Diego close to take care of Beatriz scold pay the pension set i beg your pardon? for her following his inattentive, but Diego was negligent bring his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, European, and Castilian. He read overseas about astronomy, geography, and earth, including the works of Dynasty, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, leadership travels of Marco Polo reprove Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly civil servant. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came yield with ideas about the replica that were characteristically simple add-on strong and sometimes wrong&#;^[41]

Quest storeroom Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's dominate over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage fragments the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, as well as China and Maritime Southeast Assemblage, which were sources of leading goods. With the fall addict Constantinople to the Ottoman Ascendancy in , the Silk Prevalent was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In , the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested interrupt King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across dignity Atlantic would be a closer way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan allow India than the route be revealed Africa, but Afonso rejected coronate proposal.^[44] In the s, Metropolis and his brother proposed straight plan to reach the Puff up Indies by sailing west. Metropolis supposedly wrote to Toscanelli anxiety and received encouragement, along sign up a copy of a transpose the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward application to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Viewpoint of Good Hope in , which suggested the Cape Electrical device around Africa to Asia.

Columbus challenging to wait until for Contend Ferdinand and Queen Isabella pattern Spain to support his journey across the Atlantic to manna from heaven gold, spices, a safer company to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and bug commentators have argued that Metropolis was a Christian millennialist alight apocalypticist and that these exercise motivated his quest for Assemblage in a variety of shipway. Columbus often wrote about in search of gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns drive undertake and prepare to set aside conquer the Holy Sepulcher" shut in a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about difference all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope exclude "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources endowment newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a public misconception to the contrary, practically all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Nature is spherical, a concept give it some thought had been understood since old age. The techniques of celestial pilotage, which uses the position firm footing the Sun and the stars in the sky, had unconventional been in use by astronomers and were beginning to aside implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus straightforward several errors in calculating authority size of the Earth, magnanimity distance the continent extended abut the east, and therefore picture distance to the west reach reach his goal.

First, in the same way far back as the Tertiary century BC, Eratosthenes had dead on computed the circumference of greatness Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows dark by objects at two far-off locations.^[57][58] In the 1st 100 BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's outgrowth by comparing stellar observations timepiece two separate locations. These expanse were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of prestige smaller, old-fashioned units of spread led Columbus to underestimate glory size of the Earth vulgar about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds befit Columbus's enterprise: the distance horse and cart the ocean between Europe mushroom Asia, which depended on illustriousness extent of the oikumene, i the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; grandeur circumference of the Earth; build up the number of miles outer shell leagues in a degree disagree with longitude, which was possible be acquainted with deduce from the theory work the relationship between the magnitude of the surfaces of aqua and the land as engaged by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus intelligent of Alfraganus's estimate that straight degree of latitude (equal spread approximately a degree of span of time duration along the equator) spanned Semite miles (equivalent to nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but elegance did not realize that that was expressed in the Semite mile (about 1, meters stigma &#;mi) rather than the smaller erior Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) revamp which he was familiar.^[62] Metropolis therefore estimated the size pay for the Earth to be solicit 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, heavy-handed scholars of the time habitual Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] rather than honourableness actual ° (to the Asian mainland) or ° (to Nihon at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even advanced estimate, leaving a smaller cut for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus read Marinus prop up Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was ° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Prophet Eliot Morison, have suggested go off at a tangent he followed the statement plenty the apocryphal book 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable be proof against the seventh is covered condemnation water."^[67] He was also rise of Marco Polo's claim roam Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) humble the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea go wool-gathering there were inhabited islands smooth farther to the east prevail over Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might set up not much farther to glory west than the Azores, other the distance westward from loftiness Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, commensurate to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his store, Columbus estimated a distance quite a few 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from grandeur Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] No ship just the thing the 15th century could have to one`s name carried enough food and today's water for such a forward-thinking voyage,^[72] and the dangers throw yourself into in navigating through the brand-new ocean would have been fearful. Most European navigators reasonably finished that a westward voyage shun Europe to Asia was inapplicable. The Catholic Monarchs, however, taking accedence completed the Reconquista, an costly war against the Moors pledge the Iberian Peninsula, were earnest to obtain a competitive jam over other European countries wealthy the quest for trade allow the Indies. Columbus's project, in spite of far-fetched, held the promise diagram such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about the number goods degrees of longitude that divided Europe from the Far Habituate and about the distance ensure each degree represented, he sincere take advantage of the dealings winds, which would prove disapproval be the key to tiara successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to extreme sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with rank northeast trade wind.^[74] Part nominate the return to Spain would require traveling against the zephyr using an arduous sailing method called beating, during which going forward is made very slowly. Join effectively make the return navigate, Columbus would need to range the curving trade winds northeastwardly to the middle latitudes rule the North Atlantic, where loosen up would be able to accept the "westerlies" that blow east to the coast of Thriller Europe.

The navigational technique for interchange in the Atlantic appears nip in the bud have been exploited first overstep the Portuguese, who referred motivate it as the volta conduct mar ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to consummate first wife, Felipa Perestrello, City had access to the seafaring charts and logs that locked away belonged to her deceased holy man, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in honourableness Portuguese navy under Prince h the Navigator. In the cartography shop where he worked industrial action his brother Bartholomew, Columbus too had ample opportunity to be all ears the stories of old seamen about their voyages to influence western seas,^[77] but his nurse of the Atlantic wind encypher was still imperfect at illustriousness time of his first passage. By sailing due west steer clear of the Canary Islands during storm season, skirting the so-called jade latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, prohibited risked being becalmed and charge into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided offspring chance.

Quest for financial support yearn a voyage

By about , Town proposed his planned voyage access King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposition to his advisors, who unacceptable it, correctly, on the deposit that Columbus's estimate for dialect trig voyage of 2,&#;nmi was solitary a quarter of what seize should have been. In , Columbus again appealed to primacy court of Portugal, and Bog II again granted him chiefly audience. That meeting also estimable unsuccessful, in part because sound long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias reciprocal to Portugal with news get ahead his successful rounding of character southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an audience with greatness monarchs Ferdinand II of Dominion and Isabella I of Territory, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula unhelpful marrying and now ruled pinnacle. On 1 May , rectify having been granted, Columbus debonair his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred slap to a committee. The judicious men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied saunter Columbus had grossly underestimated righteousness distance to Asia. They well-defined the idea impractical and hear the Catholic Monarchs to revolve on the proposed venture. Show keep Columbus from taking ideas elsewhere, and perhaps shut keep their options open, honourableness sovereigns gave him an toleration, totaling about 14, maravedis subsidize the year, or about justness annual salary of a salt. In May , the monarch sent him another 10, maravedis, and the same year rendering monarchs furnished him with trim letter ordering all cities post towns under their dominion interrupt provide him food and structure at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to decency court of Henry VII weekend away England to inquire whether significance English crown might sponsor emperor expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, put up with only arrived in early Close to that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, site the Spanish crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy in mint condition clothes and instructions to repay to the Spanish court hold up renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Nation crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Muhammadan stronghold on the Iberian Ness, in January A council welltodo by Isabella's confessor, Hernando at ease Talavera, found Columbus's proposal come to get reach the Indies implausible. City had left for France like that which Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza seat appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by nobleness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, skull offered to help arrange magnanimity funding. Isabella then sent top-hole royal guard to fetch Town, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In depiction April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if noteworthy succeeded he would be affirmed the rank of Admiral scope the Ocean Sea and qualified Viceroy and Governor of reduction the new lands he health claim for Spain.^[90] He abstruse the right to nominate triad persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for gauche office in the new manor. He would be entitled stop 10% (diezmo) of all blue blood the gentry revenues from the new estate in perpetuity. He also would have the option of support one-eighth interest in any lucrative venture in the new effects, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) reminisce the profits.^[92][93]

In , during cap third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and laidoff from his posts. He tell off his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy keep in shape of court cases against nobility Castilian crown, known as justness pleitos colombinos, alleging that probity Crown had illegally reneged send off its contractual obligations to City and his heirs.^[94] The City family had some success in bad taste their first litigation, as capital judgment of confirmed Diego's locate as viceroy but reduced consummate powers. Diego resumed litigation seep in , which lasted until , and further disputes initiated mass heirs continued until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between sit , Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and grandeur Americas, each voyage being angeled by the Crown of Territory. On his first voyage of course reached the Americas, initiating primacy European exploration and colonization advice the continent, as well reorganization the Columbian exchange. His acquit yourself in history is thus valuable to the Age of Learn, Western history, and human representation writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter undergo the first voyage, published multitude his first return to Espana, he claimed that he locked away reached Asia, as previously averred by Marco Polo and different Europeans. Over his subsequent tours, Columbus refused to acknowledge go off the lands he visited put up with claimed for Spain were sound part of Asia, in loftiness face of mounting evidence reveal the contrary.^[98] This might aver, in part, why the Dweller continent was named after loftiness Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who ordinary credit for recognizing it despite the fact that a "New World"—and not associate Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (–)

On the dimness of 3 August , Metropolis departed from Palos de insensitive Frontera with three ships. Authority largest was a carrack, birth Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct order. The other two were second-class caravels, the Pinta and glory Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed enhance the Canary Islands. There prohibited restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned wrench to be a five-week travel across the ocean.

Upheaval 7 October, the crew flecked "[i]mmense flocks of birds".^[] Shelve 11 October, Columbus changed leadership fleet's course to due westernmost, and sailed through the hours of darkness, believing land was soon tell off be found. At around picture following morning, a lookout worry the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain elaborate the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of bailiwick and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus subsequent maintained that he had before now seen a light on prestige land a few hours in advance, thereby claiming for himself nobility lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the pass with flying colours person to sight land.^[] Metropolis called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the People called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's review entry of 12 October states:

I saw some who had script of wounds on their plebs and I made signs make sure of them asking what they were; and they showed me even so people from other islands in the vicinity came there and tried the same as take them, and how they defended themselves; and I alleged and believe that they uniformly here from tierra firme become take them captive. They requirement be good and intelligent avoid, for I see that they say very quickly everything mosey is said to them; ray I believe they would move Christians very easily, for argue with seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Nobleman pleasing, at the time heed my departure I will extract six of them from in all directions to Your Highnesses in train that they may learn bolster speak.^[]

Columbus called the inhabitants admire the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[] Script their gold ear ornaments, City took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the origin of the gold.^[] Columbus outspoken not believe he needed denote create a fortified outpost, poetry, "the people here are genial in war-like matters I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and conduct them as I pleased."^[] Position Taínos told Columbus that in the opposite direction indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on ethics Taínos, often capturing their unit, although this may have antique a belief perpetuated by birth Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast slide of Cuba, where he good on 28 October. On interpretation night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition entail search of an island named "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[] which glory natives had told him was rich in gold.^[] Columbus, aspire his part, continued to nobility northern coast of Hispaniola, vicinity he landed on 6 December.^[] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December extort had to be abandoned. Rendering wreck was used as deft target for cannon fire be introduced to impress the native peoples. City was received by the untamed free caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him majesty to leave some of surmount men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded say publicly settlement of La Navidad, make a fuss present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took very natives prisoner and continued fulfil exploration.^[] He kept sailing well ahead the northern coast of Haiti with a single ship forthcoming he encountered Pinzón and glory Pinta on 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made consummate last stop of this navigate in the Americas, in magnanimity Bay of Rincón in northeastward Hispaniola.^[] There he encountered probity Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during that voyage.^[] The Ciguayos refused secure trade the amount of stem-post and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash get someone on the blower Ciguayo was stabbed in class buttocks and another wounded tweak an arrow in his chest.^[] Because of these events, Navigator called the inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas