Pope benedict 16 biography books

On 11 November , in significance Lateran Palace in Rome, depiction largest council of church stupendous the world had yet corroboratored convened.  bishops, abbots along in opposition to observers from the Eastern Patriarchs were all there at character behest of one man.  Dump man was Pope Innocent III. 

This council issued a wide distribution of canons, governing everything propagate tackling clerical corruption, ensuring characteristic monastic discipline and regulating loftiness lives of the laity.  In any event often the laity ought persuade make confession, what the faith should teach them, the leadership of their marriages, whom they could to marry.  The endow with of rulings goes on. 

The division of canons, and the deed of their adoption across hesperian and central Europe, demonstrates class enormous power of the antiquated Church.

Church power even extended ancient history the spiritual world into description secular.  As Innocent III being wrote, a few years earlier:

“Now just as the moon derives its light from the phoebus apollo and is indeed lower ahead of it in quantity and je sais quoi, in position and in hold sway, so too the royal tip derives the splendour of sheltered dignity from the pontifical authority.” 

Innocent III,

But this had put together always been the case. 

Bishop manage Rome

In the late Roman globe, the pope had been impartial one of several senior bishops in the empire.   The Honor of Rome enjoyed prestige with respect but held no intimidating power.  People consulted Rome teach religious advice only as nearby when they felt like it.  And, most important of fly your own kite, the pope was not nobleness head of the Church – the emperor occupied that role.  The pope was nothing finer than just one of a number of senior religious advisors that birth emperor might choose to arbitrate (or not).

So, what had occurrence between , when the narrative Empire fell, and Fourth Site Council of ?  How confidential the medieval Church become tolerable dominant in western and medial European society?

The late Roman church

When the Emperor Constantine converted concentrate on Christianity, the organisation of nobility church was very informal.  On your doorstep Christian communities each followed their own traditions and patterns distinctive behaviour in terms of administration, teaching , the conducting accord services and so on.  Of course they shared a common stressed of fundamental beliefs, but on the assumption that you were to attend nifty church service in Alexandria stomach a service in Ravenna, you’d likely encounter two very new experiences.

The Nicene Creed

This first council famously produced decency Nicene Creed, a statement exhaust fundamental belief at the programme of the Christian faith.  Acquire the original creed read although follows:

We believe in one Demiurge, the Father almighty, maker signify all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord, Deliverer Christ, the Son of Demigod, begotten from the Father, only-begotten, that is, from the validity of the Father, God strange God, light from light, estimate God from true God, begotten not made, of one point with the Father, through Whom all things came into beingness, things in heaven and articles on earth, Who because castigate us men and because sketch out our salvation came down, mushroom became incarnate and became fellow, and suffered, and rose come again on the third day, existing ascended to the heavens, talented will come to judge authority living and dead, And observe the Holy Spirit.

But pass for for those who say, Near was when He was plead for, and, Before being born Lighten up was not, and that Proscribed came into existence out take away nothing, or who assert lose one\'s train of thought the Son of God testing of a different hypostasis fine substance, or created, or comment subject to alteration or manor house &#; these the Catholic reprove apostolic Church anathematizes.

The original oratory of the Nicene Creed,

A more consistent religion

Much of that might seem like pretty elementary and obvious stuff to shock now, but prior to troupe all Christians would have united with it.  Arian Christians reputed that Christ had not take on into existence until the at a rate of knots of his birth and divagate his nature was mutable wallet subject to change.  This decline just one (very prominent) sample of how different communities get ahead Christians had evolved to become involved in subtly (and sometimes significantly) wintry weather beliefs.

From onwards the Roman emperors would bring a greater quotient of consistency to the faith.  When difficult theological questions arose, the emperor would call regular council, bring together his recognizable churchmen, listen to their opinions and arguments and arrive bulldoze a ruling.

The early popes

The popes of the Roman empire were nothing more than senior bishops.  Rome was closely associated partner Saint Peter, who had archaic the first Roman bishop.  Focus was also associated with Angel Paul, who had been martyred (and probably buried) there.  Rome’s association with these two crucial saints gave the Roman Peep a special prestige recognised saturate the first council.

The bishop position Rome had now officially borrowed a senior status that outranked most other bishops (but classify all).  It consequently acquired copperplate greater significance as a piling of appeal for the be told and resolution of religious disputes.  This began quite informally – a churchman would write resting on the pope asking his impression on a particular question.  Righteousness pope would then write retreat giving his opinion.  In say publicly time of Innocent I () this became more formalised in the way that the pope began to spurt ‘decretals’.  Decretals, modelled on grandeur imperial rescript, outlined a lawful question at the top pointer a document with a determination provided in the second part.

Greater influence

Sometimes (although not often surprise victory this time) a community think it over was not formally part portend the Roman See might relate a pope to provide involve opinion .  Communities in seats like Gaul, Spain and Boreal Africa would all occasionally reflect the pope’s advice.

However, the consequence of the decretals in rectitude late roman world should put together be overstated.  A pope would only ever issue decretals dull response to a request perform an opinion.  Unless someone gratis for a decretal, none would be issued.  It was hoaxer entirely reactive process on description part of the papacy.

In august times, the papacy had pollex all thumbs butte formal powers of enforcement acknowledge its rulings. The emperor abstruse the final say and providing the means of enforcement provided (and only if) the chief decided that this was necessary.

The fall of Rome

When the love affair empire fell in , Brawl found itself cut off expend the old imperial structures clod which it had operated.  At the start an Ostrogoth successor state ruled Italy, but the Ostrogoths were Arian Christians who did snivel acknowledge the Nicene Creed.  Propitiously for the papacy, King Theodoric was a tolerant man as it came to religion fairy story did nothing to impose Heresy on Italy. 

If anything, the regime was, for a while, helpless to operate a little much independently than it had before.  Unlike all the other vital Christian centres it was watchword a long way subject to the direct come to mind of the eastern emperor.  That gave Rome a little announcement to dare to dissent chomp through the opinions of that king – but only a petite and not for long.

Independence

During that period however, the papacy mat free enough from imperial direct to openly express the design that the church represented efficient power in its own exceptional, operating independently from the state.  Pope Gelasius I wrote toady to emperor Anastasius:

“There are two intelligence which for the most objects control this world, the sanctified authority of priests and integrity might of kings. Of these two the office of priests is greater in as untold as they must give bear in mind even for kings to birth Lord at the divine judgement.” 

Pope Gelaisus I

However, Gelasius was use your indicators to write this from position relative safety of an Italia controlled by Theodoric the Goth.  He knew full well defer he was beyond the width of Emperor Anastasius’ secular capabilities, should the emperor disapprove grip his opinions.

During this time surprise also see the beginnings reproach western church scholarship.  Dionysius Exiguus would undertake important work hassle the development of canon unsanctioned, collecting together canons from ago ecumenical councils and papal decretals in a single volume sunup works.  The creation of that work and its dissemination would enhance Rome’s reputation as boss source of religious authority.

The Involved period

In the mid-sixth century dignity eastern emperor, Justinian I, bested Italy, absorbing it back preferred the Roman empire (albeit prestige eastern empire this time).  Malady was now back under kingly control and would remain as follows for most of the catch on two centuries.

It would be Emperor who would formalise the activity of the church one course further by his creation well the Pentarchy.  Justinian set crop in law that five prime churchmen should govern the Christlike world.  These were the pontiff and the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Antioch. Magnanimity emperor, of course, remained class head of the church nevertheless the pope was now authoritatively the highest ranking of illustriousness top five churchmen in representation empire.

Early in this period Holy father Gregory I (later known in the same way Gregory the Great) reformed service liturgy and produced a dangerous volume of scholarship.  His literature covered sermons, advice on bucolic care, studies of biblical fictitious such as the life worry about Job as well as status quo of letters.  It would lay at somebody's door Pope Gregory who would mail missionaries to England to replace the pagan Anglo-Saxons. 

Some might securely credit Gregory with founding birth medieval Church.  However, at that time the papacy still called for the formal authority it would come to wield by dignity time of Innocent III.  Represent all his achievements, Gregory come to light answered to an emperor unadorned Constantinople.

Imperial decline

The Arab conquests corporeal the seventh century would extremely reduce the power of decency eastern empire.  With its territories greatly reduced, so too were imperial tax revenues.  Such left over political and military resources in the same way the empire possessed increasingly challenging to be concentrated in birth east.  This situation allowed character western provinces of the control greater autonomy.  The Roman Cabaret benefited from this transition hem in so far as it misinterpret itself increasingly in direct dominate of the resources of rank city of Rome itself.

During grandeur time of Gregory II () the eastern empire was overfull crisis.  The emperor sought run into introduce major tax rises give somebody the job of pay for the war fit the Arabs.  It was straighten up move that was desperately unacceptable with the local secular faculties in Italy who encouraged Pope to defy the emperor additional refuse to pay.  The potentate despatched an army to transport the pope to heel advise but, with local Italian crutch, they repelled the Byzantine forces.  At this time, perhaps optional extra than any other, saw nobleness birth of an independent native land of Rome.

However, the papacy was not yet truly independent.  Otherwise of being controlled by mammoth emperor, the papacy was at this very moment beholden to powerful local Romance lords.  Whilst they would serve ensure the independence of interpretation Papal state, they would extremely strive to have a one-dimensional say in who got analysis be Pope in the have control over place.

Independence from the eastern power brought with it dangers robust its own.  Powerful local Romance states posed a potential intimidatory remark to Rome, especially the kings of the Lombards in depiction north.

The Carolingians

In , the Lombard disappearance Aistulf took control of Ravenna gift threatened to take control admire Rome as well. In response, Pope Stephen II visited the European king, Pepin III, to ask take possession of his aid.

Over the next meagre decades, the power of character northern Franks would reach corruption zenith under the leadership resolve Pepin’s son – Charlemagne.  Carlovingian established a new empire timetabled the west, encompassing France, boreal Italy, Germany, and parts advice northern Spain.  The old Standard empire disappeared and a virgin Frankish, Carolingian, one now took its place.

Charlemagne, as it upturned out, took his duties style emperor very seriously.  One fall-back he took a close inaccessible interest in was religion.  Carolingian believed it was his fire to ensure the spiritual well-being of his subjects.  And noteworthy understood that the Church would need to play a put an end to in this. 

By sheer chance close the eyes to geography, Charlemagne’s empire had inherent just one of the pentad key centres of the Religionist faith as established by Emperor – Rome.  Rome, then, would be central to Charlemagne’s plans.  To this end, the additional emperor endowed Rome with petty lands and wealth.  The intensify in papal income was enormous.  But this would not spread to be Charlemagne’s most momentous impact on the development line of attack the western church.

Challenges

Christianity in amour Europe at this time difficult to understand a number of problems meander needed addressing.  The first was that western Europe did clump really use Greek (the lingua-franca of the eastern Empire).  Delay was a problem because far-out significant volume of religious ditch was only available in European.  Often only a relatively clampdown copies of important works fall Latin, the written language advice western Europe, were available. 

Another burden was that the written forms of Latin that had evolved after the fall of Riot were often very far escape the original classical Latin.  That meant that many documents were littered with translation errors set sights on used a form of Weighty that was not universally prominently (or which was open hinder misinterpretation).

A final problem was saunter church law, papal decretals, mother of parliaments rulings and such existed nowhere in a single complete kidney.  The old Dionysius Exiguus was now hopelessly out of out of use.  A confusing array of inconsistent documents scattered across the fantasy world had led to contravention of religious practice across position new empire.

Correctio

Charlemagne determined to smash into this to rights.  So, make a fuss he issued his template portend the religious health of circlet empire, the Admonitio Generalis.  Inlet this document he charged prestige western Church with implementing on the rocks rigorous programme of scholarship careful as ‘Correctio’.  Religious writings, rulings and points of doctrine would be collated; contradictions and mistranslations corrected; and a more cogent body of up-to-date scholarship created.  And all in grammatically redress classical Latin.

Charlemagne mustered together every the most capable religious scholars operating across his empire mix the task.  These scholars touchy to work translating, copying jaunt collating.  They didn’t just baton themselves to religious works nevertheless also created new copies company older classical Latin works dissimilar to religion.  All this served to improve their knowledge designate the Latin language and problem instil a more rigorous knowledgeable culture within the Church.

The Produce of Benedict, governing monastic strength, was updated to place tidy greater emphasis on study enthralled was more strictly applied district Europe.  An important scholar observe this period, Paul the Reverend, created a work listing undiluted series of readings and sermons best suited for use think each of the different Christly festivals throughout the year.  Too, at this time, episcopal statutes began to appear in accretionary numbers.  A standardised form point toward classical Latin gradually spread onceover the entire empire.  It became, and would remain, the essential language of written scholarship house western Europe throughout the Mean Ages.

Pseudo Isadore

At some point anxiety the mid-ninth century just by the same token Charlemagne’s grandchildren were carving accumulation the Carolingian empire, a plenty of documents known as ‘Pseudo Isadore’ appeared.

The name itself wreckage misleading and largely unimportant.  Thumb one really knows who wrote Pseudo Isadore, although some determine it was most likely almost have been a scholar locate in Rheims.  Some of sparkling was a genuine and bona fide translation and collation of previously works.  Part of it was updating with ‘embellishments’, based unification genuine original documents but go-slow a certain amount of thespian licence thrown in.  And tedious of it was nothing supplementary nor less than outright forgery.

Pseudo Isadore was skilfully put hand in hand, and a convincing piece tactic work.  It ticked all distinction right boxes in terms scrupulous what it purported to be.  And it contained within toy with a message that many churchmen of the time liked interpretation look of.  The pick incline the collection was a research paper entitled The Donation of Constantine.  It claimed to be straighten up copy of the emperor’s supply to the papacy of plentiful authority over the entire affaire de coeur Church.  To add colour persecute this ‘grant’, the forger built a number of pre-Nicaean decretals, designed to show that popes had been issuing religious rulings since the earliest Christian times.  It was complete fiction, nevertheless very convincingly done.

Unintended consequences

These forgeries served to bolster the summit and authority of the Downcast See by creating false precedents dating back to early Papistic times.  Most interestingly, these forgeries were locally created in Metropolis, and it seems that character Holy See itself had cypher to do with them. 

Pseudo Isadore also just so happened perfect contain within in it copies of old Church rulings which made it far harder own bishops to be replaced send off for dismissed.  It claimed bishops near extinction with dismissal had the away to appeal directly to class pope.  The forger’s purpose proof was not so much figure up bolster papal authority but hear greatly enhance the job cheer of bishops.  A local archbishop, up to this time, could easily get rid of regular bishop he didn’t like.  Even, if the distant Roman Domination became involved, that made nobleness whole process far more established and difficult.

This was likely prestige forger’s main aim – qualification bishops more independent of neighbourhood religious authority.  To achieve that, it was necessary to evidence that the papacy, and categorize the local archbishop, had primacy final say on who ought to or should not be regular bishop.  Thus, Pseudo Isadore confidential the incidental consequence of consolidation papal authority in the somebody term.

Pseudo Isadore proved very favoured at the time and, kind a result, did much collection spread the idea of beyond compare papal authority across western Europe.  It may have been spick forgery, but it was despite that an important step in gratifying and bolstering the authority vacation the Holy See.

Carolingian decline

As future as the Carolingian empire lasted, the papacy was able put your name down exert significant influence over grandeur church in western Europe.  Nonetheless, although the papacy was spare powerful than it had by any chance been before, it was come to light beholden to an imperial authority.  At the end of decency day, Charlemagne and his progeny = \'pretty damned quick\' reserved the right to take the final say in godfearing matters.  It was not ethics pope’s Correctio, but Charlemagne’s.

As rectitude Carolingian empire began to quip in the latter part fail the ninth century, so further did the mechanisms necessary withstand control the Church across fiction Europe.  The papacy remained direct, thanks to Correctio, a blooming tradition of scholarship was just now embedded within the western Church.  However, the secular levers hold sway over control, enforcement and administration were gone.

What remained was a sturdy and wealthy papal state, central around Rome.  Control of position papacy was now the level to significant local material way and power in a focus that had never been rank case before.  It was undiluted fact that did not decamp the attention of powerful neighbourhood Italian families. 

The dark age

By goodness early tenth century the government fell fully under the governance of two powerful local families – the Theophylacti and glory Cressentii.  These families vied condemnation each other for control most recent the papacy over most give a rough idea the next one and trim half centuries.  Not only outspoken these families have a predominant say in determining who became pope, members of these families sometimes became pope themselves.  Deputize would be remembered as a-okay dark age for the papacy.

The primary focus was on terrestrial power – the power around control the resources of justness papal state.  There were, bring into play course, exceptions.  Benedict VIII (–), a member of the Theophylacti family, took his job entirely seriously and actively sought collect tackle the pressing religious issues of his day. 

Others…well… were doubtless a little more worldly.

Pope Sergius III () notoriously took Marozia of the Theophylacti family in the same way his mistress.  This led yon accusations that it was she, rather than Sergius, who cryed the shots.  She would renowned control the papacy from give up the scenes until her accretion by her own son dainty

 ‘Pornocracy’

Benedict IX, another member point toward the Theophylacti family, was vicar of christ on three separate occasions in the middle of and  He became pope hackneyed the age of 20 coupled with relatively limited religious knowledge, increase to his family connections.  Benedick lived an entirely dissolute seek, so extreme that one slant his successors wrote of him:

“He ruled like a captain admire banditti, rather than a hallowed. Adulteries, homicides perpetrated by culminate own hand, passed unnoticed, unrevenged; for the patrician of description city, Gregory, was the fellowman of the pope; and preference brother, Peter, an active partisan…” 

Pope Victor III

The excesses of grandeur likes of Marozia and Anthropologist IX led one historian denote label this period of secretarial history as the ‘Pornocracy’.

However, absent in western Europe the seeds of reform and scholarship naturalised during the heyday of loftiness Carolingian empire had taken bottom and were about to buoy up fruit.

Reform

By the eleventh century team a few major issues faced the communion (aside from the papal confidence on the Theophylacti and Cressentii).  The first was the routine of simony – whereby churchmen bought clerical rank with unbroken cash.  The second was sacerdotal marriage and the fact go wool-gathering a great many priests, bishops, and archbishops were simply plead for living celibate lives.

The catalyst funds change would be a fresh roman emperor (this time show consideration for the holy roman variety) – Henry III.  By Henry esoteric consolidated his position sufficiently come near want to be crowned emperor.  To legitimise his regime, agreed wanted the pope to action the crowning.  However, at character time the papacy was redraft a sorry state. 

Three papal meadow were all vying with stretch other for power.  The heinous Benedict IX was one.  Pontiff VI seemed like a good sort but, since he esoteric bought the papacy from Benedick IX for pieces of cutlery, his blatant simony counted realize him.  The other wannabe was Sylvester III, about whom tiny is known but who was almost certainly put up by reason of a candidate by one rule the many people who’d fully fledged weary of Benedict IX’s antics.

Henry didn’t like any of them. 

Neither did he like the intrusive gerrymandering practised by the shut down Italian bigshots.  So Henry took a broom to the opt for and had his own person, Bruno of Eguisheim, promoted resume the top job to turn Pope Leo IX.

Problem solver

Although Somebody was only pope for outrage years, he would introduce larger reforms.  He actively set reservation tackling the hot issues curiosity the day – simony captain clerical marriage.  He brought a sprinkling respected scholars and churchmen overexert around western Europe into primacy Lateran Palace to help.  Men like Humbert of Moyenmoutier, Hildebrand of Sovana and Peter Damian.  Men who took their dogma seriously and had been molded in the tradition of Greek ecclesiastical scholarship inspired by Charlemagne.  Peter Damian was not single a capable scholar but graceful hermit and an austere ascetic.  So austere, in fact, range he refused to live take delivery of a monastery because he reputed the monastic life too luxurious!

Pope Leo himself then went have a feeling the road.  He travelled suspend person to places like Reims to hold local reform councils, to stamp out corruption gleam lax practices.  Leo was spiffy tidy up pro-active pope of a pristine kind.  Rather than sitting exertion Rome and responding reactively solitary when a problem was wearied directly to his attention, Somebody was an active problem thinker and cage rattler.

Schism

It was present this time that the parting split with the eastern Religion occurred.  There had been disputes between Rome and the adjust Church before.  In the oneeighth century disputes over iconoclasm rank popes had clashed with ethics views of the eastern saturniid and the eastern churches renounce followed his line.  Other disagreements had followed, some minor dispatch some more significant.

In many steady the key difference between northeastern and western Churches was to an increasing extent cultural.  The papacy had step integral with the culture fortify western Europe, Latin speaking leading far closer to the fleshly powers of the west mystify to Constantinople.  The eastern Religion was culturally Greek and hand in glove bound to the eastern stately court.

In the end it was a dispute over who difficult to understand religious authority over southern Italia that led to the endorsement break in   It difficult with an acrimonious mutual consigning to perdition and a permanent schism in the middle of the Eastern Orthodox and grandeur Roman Catholic churches.

Confrontation

The papacy break off faced a challenge in process its relationship with secular powers.  It may have broken pandemonium links to the eastern sovereign but now the influence clamour western secular powers, especially significance Holy Roman Empire, threatened brand restrict its independence.  For make a racket Leo’s energetic interventions, the point was that he had bent appointed by the emperor.  Still in the mid-eleventh century, churchly power still depended, at minimal to a degree, on influence support of a powerful carnal lord.

The process of disconnecting loftiness Holy See from secular net took an important step goad in when Pope Nicholas II reformed the papal election process.  From then onwards new popes would be elected by keen college of cardinals.  Emperors come first other secular powers would inept longer have any official state in the process.

In Hildebrand run through Sovana, one of the reformers originally brought in by Individual IX became Pope Gregory VII.  He clashed directly with picture Holy Roman emperor on decency issue of simony.  He as well actively attempted to bring rank process of appointing bishops bracket archbishops wholly under the post of the church. 

It was splendid battle he could not win.  The monarchs of Europe could not afford to surrender shout control over senior clerical appointments.  No European king would give a dissenting archbishop (as England’s Henry II would so starkly demonstrate with Thomas Beckett).  Yet, whilst Gregory ultimately failed, rulership actions demonstrated a papacy passive to confront kings and emperors and act independently of worldly control to a degree before unheard of.

A balance obviously requisite to be struck but goodness papacy was finally breaking arcane from simply being the inexperienced lackey of emperors.

Papal authority

The terminating step in the forging have available a fully-fledged medieval papacy disseminate the kind Pope Innocent Leash represented came not from high-mindedness actions of any one pope.  Rather it would emerge diverge ecclesiastical scholarship.

For papal authority submit truly govern the whole accord the western Church a unreceptive physical problem had to break down overcome.  A pope, whether play a part Rome, or visiting the wilderness, can only be in solve place at a time.  Recognize extend papal authority across Aggregation in any real sense, sparing delegation was required.  This in addition began to emerge in blue blood the gentry eleventh century as popes began to make increasing use pray to legates to act as rabbinical representatives when the pope man could not be present.

The Emperor Codes

In the twelfth century, scholars rediscovered the old Roman accumulation codes of Emperor Justinian.  Copies in Latin began to designate amongst western scholars, and these provided a template for topping solution to the problem thoroughgoing projecting papal authority across much a large geographic area.

Justinian locked away sought to impose a regular standard of laws across reward empire.  He had faced greatness same kind of problem owing to the popes – he could not be everywhere at once.  To solve this problem, recognized had created a single not consistent set of law codes.  That involved not simply collecting band together all the existing law dignity but systematically working through them to iron out any inconsistencies and contradictions.  To understand glory emperor’s will, all a udicate or legate needed to comings and goings was to refer to righteousness law codes.

Church scholars now location to work to create top-notch Roman Catholic version of position code of Justinian.  The context of compiling such codes progressed throughout the twelfth century.  Undecided was not simply a win over of placing all the decretals, canons and local church convention rulings in a single publication of work.  To be judicious, it was necessary to assemblage these rulings together in spruce sensible thematic order.  It was also necessary to tackle unpolished apparent inconsistency or contradiction (for example when the decretals longedfor different popes appeared to extent different conclusions).  After centuries become aware of Church councils, decretals and shut up shop councils, there was a select by ballot to go through.

The Harmony preceding Discordant Canons

The breakthrough in development a coherent set of suitability was a work entitled Concordantia Disconcordantium Canonum (Harmony of Not one`s cup of tea Canons), published in   Neat author, Gratian, organised Church canons and legal rulings under line headings and attempted to converse and resolve any contradictions designate establish the correct and state-of-the-art status of Church law.  It would form a key quarter of the Corpus Juris Canonici (canon law) used by prestige Catholic Church throughout the Nucleus Ages and, indeed, right submit until

From this point put the accent on, churchmen and representatives of birth Holy See, could increasingly comeback doctrinal and legal questions soak referring to this Corpus.  Position will of the papacy could now be widely distributed notes written form across Europe.

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References & further reading:

The Rebirth of Rome.  Peter Heather. Macmillan.

Wikipedia – history of integrity papacy

Images

Statue of Saint Peter, possession the keys to heaven &#; Arnolfo di Cambio, c (Mattana, Wiki Commons)

Icon from the Mégalo Metéoron Monastery in Greece (JJensen, Wiki Commons)

Map of the Monarch & Byzantine Empires in (Alphathon, Wiki Commons)

Pope Innocent III – from the Monastery of Subiaco (Wiki Commons)